Reading Topics

Main ideas * The main idea is the central or most important, idea in a paragraph or passage, It may also be described as the controlling idea,and as such, it sets the direction of the paragraph or article.
* The central thought of passage is sometimes referred to as the thesis.
* The main idea may be stated or it my be implied (suggested.
* A main idea my be discovered by looking for the statement that summarizes the content of the material.
* In non-fiction writing, a stated main idea is most often found in the first sentence of a paragraph, however it may be found in any other sentence.
* Even if there is a stated main idea, do not expect that one of the answer options on ta test will be an exact of the main idea statement in the paragraph or passage.
* Remember to select broad statements, rather than highly detailed ones, for main ideas.
* To answer a main idea question, follow these steps;
1. Ask, What or who is the paragraph or passage is about?
2. Ask, what idea about the who or what is the author concerned with?
3. Find an answer option that best matches your answer to the question above.

Supporting Details
* Supporting details are facts secondary ideas that an author uses to develop and support the main idea supporting details include definitions, examples, reasons, facts, and evidence to support conclusions.
* Questions about details may begin with words such as 'who, what,when, where, how".

Context Clues The context includes the sentence, paragraph, or passage that surrounds a word and make it meaningful.
*since most words have several possible meanings, it requires context to determine a word's specific meaning in a particular situation.
* Learning the meaning of a word through context is the most practical way to build vocabulary, since a dictionary is often unavailable when a reader encounters an unfamiliar word.
* There are several different types of context clues.
-Punctuation
-definition
Example clues
-Contrast
-Synonym
-Experience
-Inference

Author's Purpose
* An author's purpose is his reason or intent in writing.
* Three common purposes are to inform ( to give factual information about a topic) to persuade (to convince you to agree with the author's opinion), and to entertain ( to amuse you or to give enjoyment).
* There are many more specific purposes for writing. These include: to describe something, to analyze something, to state a problem, to tell a story, to define something, to state a problem, to compare, to classify,to evaluate or to criticize. To inform- to give information about a subject Authors with this purpose wish to provide facts that will explain or teach something to readers.Ex. The authors of an informative paragraph about sandwiches might begin eating food between two slices of bread. To persuade- to convince the reader to agree with the author's point of view on a subject. Authors with this purpose may give facts, but their main goal is to argue or prove a point to readers,to appeal to the reader's" There are good reasons why every sandwich shoud be made with whole grain bread. To entertain-to amu se and delight;to appeal to the readers; senses and imagination. Authors with this purpose entertain in various ways, through fiction and nonfiction.
Author's Overall Organizational Pattern
* Authors try to present their ideas in some clearly organized way. They do this by arranging the supporting details in some common pattern.
* An entire paragraph or passage may be developed by a single organizational pattern
* At times, a paragraph or passage is developed by a c combination of patterns. When a combination occurs, one pattern provides a frame within which the others are used. For
instance, definition might be explained through examples.
* Understanding the overall framework helps the reader understand the author's idea and predict the details. It allows the reader to think along with the author.
* Certain clue words or transitional terms help the reader determine what pattern is being employed.
* There are several common patterns or organization.
-Comparison/contrast
-Definition
-Example
-time order
Sequence/ process
-Description
-Division/classification
-simple listing
-Spatial/place order
-Order of importance

Fact and Opinion
* A fact is a statement that can be validated or proven to be true or false by using measurements, historical or scientific documents, or even personal observation. By this definition, a fact is not always accurate or correct.
* An opinion is a statement that expresses an author's beliefs, judgements, and values. it expresses a point of view and cannot be proven.
* Statements regarding future events are opinions even if the events named appear probable. No data is available to prove or disprove it. so such statements are speculation or wishful thinking.
* Certain clue words and phrase can help a reader identify statements of opinion. Qualitative terms like"good," "bad,"attractive, honest, and like , I feel, I think, I believe,and in my opinion," can suggest that an opinion is being presented.
* Do not assume that because a statement is written in a textbook or journal it is automatically a fact. Opinion statements can be found even in what appears to be strictly factual material.

Bias
is a predisposition prejudice or prejudgement; bias my be in favor of or against something or someone
- An author frequently displays bias by using words and phrases that affect emotions an move the reader;s thinking and /or actions in a certain direction
-Bias may also be shown by the omission of certain information or alteration of facts for the purpose of changing a reader's opinions of behaviors.
-Bias is especially apparent in commercials, political speeches, and editorials.
-Students often assume that textbook authors are unbiased in presenting facts. However it is necessary to be aware of the possibility that bias can be found in some textbooks and other non-fiction writing.
-Critical reading requires that a reader recognize bias in writing. Without this recognition, the reader may become the victim of a writer's propaganda.
-Bias may be expressed by use of one of the following techniques:
-name-calling- Words like 'racist,'liberal, scum" and others are used to promote a negative response in the reader.


Tone
- An author's tone is the attitude or feeling he creates in writing about his subject the reader can recognize a mood or feeling in written material in the same way as he would recognize a mode or feeling from a speaker;s tone of voice.
-passages from literature, humanities, or political science textbooks often illustrate tone the writers of such texts are more likely subjective ans express feelings than do authors of other types of textbooks. Authors of science and history textbooks usually write with an objective tone.
- It is important to learn common 'tone words' or words used to describe tone. Some are
-abstruse-anger-bitter-compassionate-cruel-distressed-farcical-hard-intense-joyous-Nostalgic-outraged-pessimental-reverent-sentimental-sympathetic

Relationships within Sentences:
-Sentence comprehension may involve recognizing the relationship between parts of a sentence.
-If the relationship within the sentence is explicit (stated) transition words and phrases will be used.
-If the relationship within the sentence is implicit (unstated) the reader must infer the relationship.
-This skill is related to identifying the author's overall organizational pattern. Some of the same patterns and transition learned in recognizing organizational patterns will be useful in recognizing relationships within sentences.
* Some types of relationships, along with transitions that help identify them, are:
-Addition
-Clarification
-Comparison
-Contrast
-Example
-Location/spatial order
-Cause/effect
-Summary
-time

Relationships Between Sentences
*paragraph an passage comprehension is improved by recognizing how one sentence relates to another sentence; such relationships may be explicit(stated) or implicit (unstated)
The same signal words and transitions are used as found in working with relationships within sentences.
* Relationships between two sentences may be described in one of these ways:
- contridicting
-Similarities
-Summerizing
-Example
-Adding
-Effect
-Clarification
-Place
-Order
-Definition

Valid Arguments

An Argument involves reasons or evidence to support a conclusion or statement.
* A valid argument is a statement that fits into a logical pattern of reasoning and/or which makes use of relevant, verification proof to support a particular conclusion.
-In order to recognize valid arguments a reader needs to read carefully, use common sense and become familiar with the major fallacies which are used to present invalid arguments. Some common fallicies are:
-Faculty cause and effect
-Begging the question-
-Circular logic
-Hasty generalization-
--Either/or fallacy-
-Faulty analogy
-Argument to the person
-Argument to the people
-Bandwagon appeal
-Read herring
-Non sequitur
Making inferences and conclusions enables a reader to fill in information that a reader writer only suggests, because he can assume things that are not directly stated by the author.
* Making inferences is related to other reading skills. For instance, it is necessary to infer the main idea of a paragraph when there is no main idea stated.
* To be able to make accurate inferences or draw conclusions, a reader must analyze all the information given be sensitive to hidden meanings or connotations of words, and think beyond the print. Sometimes this is called reading between the lines.